The South African public service has witnessed an unprecedented process of radical transformation and change in its core mandate and delivery focus since the post-apartheid era (Putzier 2017). Consequently, the performance impact of public sector organisation (PSOs) is expected to increase as the needs because of the diverse and broad base of stakeholders in these organisations (De Waele et al. 2021; Fourie & Poggenpoel 2017). Therefore, PSOs are accountable to several stakeholders, each with criteria for measuring performance (Andersen, Brewer & Leisink 2021). Performance management becomes complex as PSO performance depends on different levels of performance, namely individual-level performance, team-level performance and organisation-level performance (Aguinis 2019; De Waele et al. 2021). Moreover, beyond organisational performance, there is also societal performance, industry performance, and a particular industry’s performance in terms of its contribution to the economy on the local and global level (Aguinis 2019; De Waele et al. 2021).

Performance management in the department under study is regulated by the Performance Management and Development System (PMDS) policy that has been effective since 02 August 2015 (PMDS Policy 2015). Arnaboldi, Lapsley and Steccolini (2015) refer to performance management in the public sector as ‘the ultimate challenge’. According to Masenya, Mokoele and Makalela (2018), many government departments are confronted with adapting effectively to change and implement the employee management and development systems, which in turn hamper service delivery.

In this context, the contribution of organisational development (OD) in promoting the performance of public sector institutions becomes valuable to research. Although the objectives of OD can be stated in simple terms as increased profitability and enhanced sustainability, OD should be understood as a multidimensional and multilevel strategy that covers the breadth and depth of an organisation (see Anderson 2019; Shukla, Heda & Panda 2015). It encompasses many organisational factors and affects stakeholders directly and indirectly (Eriksson et al. 2016). As such, OD is a holistic process applied across an organisation’s systemic complexity to create alignment of strategy, structure, people, processes, leadership and rewards (Khan 2015). Moreover, this improves efficiency and productivity in the workplace and ensures organisational profitability and sustainability through enhanced organisational performance (Rothwell 2010).

Based on the aforesaid, OD and organisational performances are interrelated concepts and processes that also mirror the complexity of each other. Furthermore, suppose organisational performance is determined by how performance is perceived, formulated and measured within a specific organisation. In that case, it is important to understand the context in which an OD intervention takes place and the objectives of enhanced performance based on how organisational performance is defined in a particular context.

As a result of the critical importance of high performance in the public sector, it is necessary to understand better how management and subordinates in PSOs perceive OD interventions and the organisation’s performance. Furthermore, as subordinates and management often play different roles in OD interventions, it is essential to explore the role of management as perceived by subordinates to ensure informed decisions are made regarding the design and implementation of the OD process. In addition to understanding the role of leadership in OD interventions, it is necessary to determine the critical success factors in designing and implementing successful OD interventions to enhance the performance of PSOs.

This research aims to address the following three research questions: (1) What are the current perceptions of the management and subordinates regarding OD’s role in enhancing a PSO department’s performance? (2) What are the perceived critical OD components and interventions required to improve institutional performance? (3) What components of an integrated OD model support the achievement of sustainable outcomes?

Next, a literature review is presented on the linkages between OD and performance management. After that, the research design adopted for this study is discussed, and the findings are presented. The article concludes with a discussion and a framework presentation that ties the study’s findings together. Finally, recommendations for practice and research are made.

The findings of the research are presented in this section. The data analyses resulted in various themes, as evidenced in the given map. The most important themes are presented in the following section and supported by direct quotes from the participants. The participants are coded to ensure their confidentiality.

The main objective of this research was to develop a framework linking OD and performance of a selected PSO department. The findings, in general, showed that the participants believed that OD interventions do not support the performance outcomes of their department. The findings are in line with previous research indicating that clarity should be achieved regarding how OD can enhance the performance of government institutions (see Bester & Hofisi 2020; Bouloiz 2020).

Further analyses resulted in a plethora of themes relating to the components and interventions that should be part and parcel of OD interventions to support performance management in the POS. The findings are summarised in the given framework (see Figure 2).

Three key issues emerged throughout the data set: a lack of leadership and managerial skills, a lack of consultation and inclusion, and a lack of communication from management to operational levels. Underlying these issues are two concerns: (1) A perceived lack of managerial transparency is associated with a lack of trust in OD interventions and unwillingness to engage in and take ownership of OD interventions on an operational level. (2) A significant amount of role confusion exists, which is interrelated and associated with structural issues, misalignment, a lack of integration, workload imbalances, planning and timing issues, and duplication, which tend to wasteful expenditure. Each of these issues contributes to challenges experienced during the implementation of OD interventions, leading to either no effect or a negative impact on organisational performance. In addition, the various challenges experienced by employees contribute to negative staff morale and poor employee well-being.

The role that management ought to play in OD interventions should not be underestimated. As stated, a lack of managerial and leadership skills was cited as a key issue underlying the challenges experienced in the department, leading to poor implementation and a lack of positive impact on organisational performance. It is specifically the tendency of management not to consult and communicate that was raised numerous times by participants. These managerial behaviours contribute to a silo effect in the department, which further restricts alignment and integration.

Based on the findings, it can be stated that the critical success factors for the design of a successful OD intervention that would lead to better performance of a PSO are a leadership and managerial approach that values inclusivity, consultation and communication (see Bans-Akutey & Tiimub 2021). Inclusivity, consultation,and communication should not only be core principles in the manager–subordinate relationship, but also in relationships between management and the OD team, OD and the HR department, as well as between the departmental management (including OD management) and the DPSA, to ensure that all processes and procedures are conducive to aligning departmental strategy, operations and objectives to governmental strategy and objectives, of which the key objective is to fulfil its public service duty to the South African nation.

Three key issues emerged throughout the data set: a lack of leadership and managerial skills, a lack of consultation and inclusion, and a lack of communication from management to operational levels. Underlying these issues are two concerns: (1) A perceived lack of managerial transparency is associated with a lack of trust in OD interventions and unwillingness to engage in and take ownership of OD interventions on an operational level. (2) A significant amount of role confusion is interrelated and associated with structural issues, misalignment, a lack of integration, workload imbalances, planning and timing issues, and duplication, which tend to wasteful expenditure. Each of these issues contributes to challenges experienced during the implementation of OD interventions, leading to either no effect or a negative impact on organisational performance. In addition, the various challenges experienced by employees contribute to negative staff morale and poor employee well-being. The importance of role clarity for OD stakeholders and employee role profiling and the anticipated outcomes thereof is well documented (Akinwale & Oluwafemip 2022; Katzenbach & Smith 2015; Mendy 2021; Nenonen et al. 2020; Pavlov et al. 2017; Ruiz et al. 2020).

The role that management ought to play in OD interventions should not be underestimated (see Bans-Akutey & Timub 2021; Mitchel 1982; Van Tuin et al. 2020). As stated, a lack of managerial and leadership skills was cited as a key issue underlying the challenges experienced in the department, leading to poor implementation and a lack of positive impact on organisational performance. It is specifically the tendency of management not to consult and communicate that was raised numerous times by participants. These managerial behaviours contribute to a silo effect in the department, which further restricts alignment and integration.

Based on the findings, it can be stated that the critical success factors for the design of a successful OD intervention that would lead to better performance of a PSO are a leadership and managerial approach that values inclusivity, consultation and communication (see Govan 2019; Hasan 2018; Kim et al. 2017; Van Tuin et al. 2020:3). Inclusivity, consultation and communication should not only be core principles in the manager–subordinate relationship, but also in relationships between management and the OD team, OD and the HR department, as well as between the departmental management (including OD management) and the DPSA. This will ensure that all processes and procedures are conducive to aligning departmental strategy, operations, and objectives to governmental strategy and objectives, of which the key objective is to fulfil its public service duty to the South African nation (see Biondi & Russo 2022; Crespi et al. 2019; Verma et al. 2020).

Based on the integrated findings, a framework (Figure 3) is presented, indicating:

The two core principles that should guide the design of OD interventions that will enhance organisational performance are:

In addition, OD’s specific requirements and responsibilities are in the context of a PSO. The OD team must deeply understand governmental objectives and the associated departmental performance implications. To ensure that OD interventions are designed and implemented in accordance with the DPSA requirements, the OD team would require a thorough understanding of DPSA policies, procedures, rules and regulations, as well as departmental performance implications. The relationship with the DPSA is of critical importance, and when any of the DPSA requirements are detrimental to operations or achieving objectives, there should be open communication and consultation with the DPSA. Because leadership and organisational culture play an important role in employee engagement, it is necessary to assess leadership and the departmental culture to ensure a leadership culture that values inclusivity, consultation and open communication (see Bans-Akutey & Timub 2021; Van Tuin et al. 2020). The OD function cannot operate in a silo, separated from the department, if a culture of inclusivity, consultation and open communication is to be fostered. Therefore, there needs to be close co-operation in departmental strategic planning and setting of objectives aligned to governmental objectives and DPSA policies, procedures, rules and regulations. On a practical level, the OD team needs to thoroughly analyse current job descriptions, roles and structures to ensure alignment with departmental and governmental strategy and objectives, including a talent audit regarding human resource requirements: skills, knowledge and experience. In addition, OD should play a proactive role in continuously identifying gaps in achieving objectives and accordingly design OD interventions that will address any shortcomings, and establish evaluation processes and measurements to ensure the effectiveness of OD interventions (Helland et al. 2021).

This research makes an important contribution on a theoretical and practical level. From a theoretical perspective, this research contributes to the limited empirical knowledge that currently exists on how OD can contribute to the performance management of PSOs. The framework developed based on the findings of the study can further serve as a theoretical foundation for improved performance management in the public sector.

The findings of this research emphasised the vital role of leadership and management in fostering an environment that promotes OD interventions in support of organisational performance. Therefore, management needs to create a more inclusive culture and involve employees in the change management process to prevent employee resistance to important initiatives to the benefit of the various stakeholders involved (i.e. staff, management and broader society). This requires regular consultation and clear communication with key stakeholders to prevent uncertainty. In consultation with key OD stakeholders, management should develop an integrated OD strategy to support the institution at multiple levels to ensure the smooth operational functions required for service performance transition. The framework presented can be used as a guideline to ensure the effective implementation of OD interventions that will meet the LPIs and strategies promoted by the DPSA.

This research had some limitations. Firstly, the research was cross-sectional with data collected at one point. Therefore, cause and effect inferences cannot be made over a longer period. Secondly, the research focused on a selected PSO. The findings can, therefore, not be generalised to other PSO settings. Thirdly, the sample was limited to management perceptions only. Future studies can benefit from including other OD stakeholders, such as HR and employees, to provide a more holistic overview of OD interventions and their impact on performance. The research can also be expanded to PSOs in other countries to allow for cross-cultural comparisons. Moreover, the sample can also be expanded to include a broader demographic representation. Lastly, the framework provides a foundation for developing a survey that can be used to assess the effectiveness of OD interventions across the South African government sector and take corrective actions where necessary.

In this study, a framework is presented that is specifically aimed at providing practical guidance for the design of OD interventions in PSOs, which was developed by applying the integrated findings, indicating the principles for the design of OD interventions, as well as the requirements and responsibilities of the OD function in the PSO environment in enhancing performance. This framework could serve as a starting point to consider using new approaches or adapting existing approaches for the department under study and all government departments. This framework will also allow departments to rethink and re-evaluate existing practices, specifically in their design and implementation processes of OD interventions.