Disasters either directly cause or pose a significant threat of death, disease or injury to affected individuals or are of such magnitude that vulnerable populations cannot survive using their own resources alone (Abiodun 2014:10; Dubey et al. 2019a:160; Kovács & Spens 2009:515; Uys 2005:406). Disasters can be sudden or slow onset, local or global, manmade or natural events that damage the environment, property or infrastructure (Abiodun 2014:10; Dubey et al. 2019a:160; Kovács & Spens 2009:515; Uys 2005:406).

For instance, a sudden-onset man-made disaster would be a chemical leak or a terrorist attack, whereas a slow-onset man-made disaster could be a political or refugee crisis (Van Wassenhove 2006:476). It is important to note that man-made disasters can be prevented, while natural disasters can only be prepared for (Kovács & Spens 2009:510). A natural disaster is a possibility that a natural occurrence is damaging to the environment, infrastructure and humans (Damoah 2022:132). For instance, a sudden-onset natural disaster would be a tornado, earthquake or hurricane, whereas a slow-onset natural disaster would be a drought (Van Wassenhove 2006:476). Disaster relief focusses on the planning of transporting equipment, food, first-aid material and the rescue of personnel from a supply point to disaster locations in an effort to safely and quickly evacuate and transport materials and vulnerable people to health care centres (Kovács & Spens 2007:101).

The first phase of disaster relief is mitigation. Mitigation is the procedures (i.e., capacity building, awareness and physical development) implemented to prevent a disaster or reduce the impact thereof (Altay & Green 2006:480; Oktari et al. 2020:3). If information from previous disasters is documented properly, it can be used in mitigation strategies to protect vulnerable communities (Altay, Prasad & Tata 2013:366). When planning these mitigation strategies, it is important to ensure that the information used is current, as regional disaster risks changes over time (Altay et al. 2013:366). The second phase of disaster relief is preparedness. Preparedness can be defined as ‘effectively anticipate, respond to, and recovering from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions’ (Bealt & Mansouri 2018:141). It is important to identify threats, identify key suppliers, develop information communication technologies and expand the collaboration base of HOs in this stage because HOs need to have accurate information to be prepared for disasters (Negi & Negi 2021:45; Van Wassenhove 2006:481). Preparedness consists of activities such as the formulation of a plan, obtaining equipment, training for the plan and implementing the plan (Altay et al. 2018:5). Pre-positioning also occurs in the preparedness phase by placing essential goods in warehouses located close to disaster-prone areas (Van Wassenhove 2006:481).

The third phase of disaster relief is the response that occurs during or directly after the disaster occurred (Bean et al. 2010:41). It is here where any harmful effects that were created by the disaster are managed by HOs to minimise suffering and death (Abiodun 2014:17; Oktari et al. 2020:3). Disaster response is influenced through three main factors, namely (1) the level of planning prior to the disaster phase, (2) the number of times the plans are rehearsed and (3) the degree of prior experience of humanitarian actors (Al-Dahash, Kulatunga & Thayaparan 2019:295). As most disasters require an urgent response, response activities include, among other things, the deployment of those responding to the disaster, organisation of resources, fulfilment of basic needs, firefighting, evacuation of vulnerable people, rebuilding infrastructure and the rescue, protection and managing of refugees (Abiodun 2014:1; Altay & Green 2006:480; Negi & Negi 2021:46; Oktari et al. 2020:3). Consequently, effective coordination and information sharing between humanitarian actors is vital for this phase to ensure an adequate response (Bealt & Mansouri 2018:133; Negi & Negi 2021:46,49).

The fourth and last phase of disaster relief is reconstruction. The reconstruction phase is carried out after the disaster relief has been executed (Negi & Negi 2021:46). This phase consists of the demolition, construction, recycling and removal of wreckage caused by the disaster (Bealt & Mansouri 2018:135). Collaboration and coordination between humanitarian actors play an important role in the reconstruction phase to ensure the success of the reconstruction phase (Kovács & Spens 2007:104). This is especially true because many factors affect the nature and extent of recovery, including the nature and effects of the disaster itself, the extent to which the government and other organisations intervened following the disaster and the ability of individuals and communities to adjust to a post-disaster world (Hettige, Haigh & Amaratunga 2018:1291).

Developing countries usually lack appropriate infrastructure and insufficient storage and transportation facilities (Ali et al. 2021:8). Therefore, most rural areas in developing countries are inaccessible because of poor infrastructure (Chari et al. 2020:2044). This poses a huge problem as any minor disruption in transporting goods can have dire consequences for people suffering from a disaster, people responding to the disaster and the government (Chari et al. 2020:2044). Consequently, resources are not always readily available, especially in developing countries, such as countries in Africa (Damoah 2022:132). Southern Africa has experienced various natural disasters, such as droughts, fires, floods, diseases and epidemic breakouts (Ngwenya & Naude 2016:1). These disasters are categorised as both sudden-onset and slow-onset disasters. For instance, the Southern African region has experienced four cyclones in two decades, with the fourth cyclone (i.e., a sudden-onset natural disaster) being the worst tropical cyclone to occur in the Southern hemisphere’s recorded history (Chari et al. 2020:2042). Lesotho, Zambia and Malawi also experienced extreme droughts (i.e., slow-onset natural disasters) in 2007–2008, resulting in 5.9 million people requiring food assistance (Ngwenya & Naude 2016:1).

Although the Southern African region is more stable in terms of political unrest than the rest of Africa, it is not without political predicaments and armed conflict and is therefore faced by man-made disasters (Olasya 2022:85). An example of a man-made disaster in Southern Africa is the conflict in Northern Mozambique. Between 2017 and 2021, approximately 2600 to 2800 people lost their lives, and 1 million people were misplaced (Kempen 2021:16). South Africa has experienced the worst event of looting to date amounting to damages of over R50 billion. This political unrest occurred in two provinces, namely Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal during July 2021 (Africa, Gumbi & Sokupa 2021:34; De Waal 2021:78). Humanitarian organisations such as ReBuild SA, UNICEF and Gift of the Givers aim to supply water, food and non-food items to communities affected by these disaster events (Negi & Negi 2021:46). However, HOs operating in Southern Africa face information management challenges as there is a lack of information sharing between different humanitarian actors (Mamabolo & Sebola 2021:128–129). This lack of coordination between humanitarian actors can lead to resource wastage, poor relief aid distribution, duplication of relief activities, loss of lives and increased operating costs (John et al. 2019:1228). Consequently, humanitarian actors should share information among themselves to ensure an efficient and effective disaster response to avoid the extended suffering of communities affected by a disaster (Agarwal, Kant & Shankar 2020:11; Dubey et al. 2019a:160; Siawsh et al. 2021:3593).

The willingness of HSC actors to support HSC activities determines the success of HSC management (Damoah 2022:132). An HSC is a means to alleviate the suffering of people affected by a disaster and to rehabilitate them to a better condition (John et al. 2019:1228). Humanitarian supply chains are distinctly different from commercial supply chains because HSCs require more urgent responses and do not have end customers but beneficiaries (Tabaklar et al. 2015:284). An HSC’s information is often more unreliable, while the information in a commercial supply chain is more precise (Abiodun 2014:19).

The more complex the social and economic impact of a disaster, the more complex the humanitarian setting (Bealt & Mansouri 2018:124). Complex environments also increase the challenges of coordination between humanitarian actors (John et al. 2019:1228). Reasons for the complex environment include the intensity and nature of the disaster, shorter lead times, sudden occurrence, a lack of resources, the unpredictability of demand, the high stakes associated with timely deliveries, the location and timing of the disaster and donors’ supplies (Abiodun 2014:18; Agarwal et al. 2022:11; Kovács & Spens 2009:507; Maghsoudi & Pazirandeh 2016:128). The magnitude, nature and location of an emergency affect the design and operation of an HSC (Abiodun 2014:11). Humanitarian organisations usually operate in areas with improper transportation infrastructure, which influences the success of operations as accessibility becomes a challenge (Ngwenya & Naude 2016:2). Humanitarian organisation employees also experience various challenges including, long working hours and operating in politically unstable or dangerous environments (Abiodun 2014:24). This causes high pressure and burnt-out employees and employee retention and high staff turnover challenges for HOs (Abiodun 2014:25; Van Wassenhove 2006:480).

The flow of information comprises information sharing, data collection and information processing, and is considered a challenge as humanitarian actors typically do not have reliable information about how and where to respond to disasters after arriving at the disaster site (Abiodun 2014:16; Altay & Pal 2014:1019; Day, Junglas & Silva 2009:644; Dubey et al. 2019a:160). This lack of information can cause further harm to an affected community (Mamabolo & Sebola 2021:130). When relevant information is not available nor shared between humanitarian actors, there is a delay in decision-making, which can have devastating consequences, such as the loss of lives and impact on livelihoods (Bjerge et al. 2016:1; Waring et al. 2018:592).

Subsequently, the quality of information shared during disaster response is becoming an increasingly more important role between humanitarian actors because accurate information is required to best support vulnerable people affected by a disaster (Kirac & Milburn 2018:498; Suifan et al. 2020:127). High-quality information sharing increases humanitarian response efforts’ efficiency and speed (Suifan et al. 2020:127). Information sharing and information quality are discussed next, with data collection and information processing incorporated into information quality. Information technology and other technologies used as tools to enhance information sharing and information quality are explored in this section.

This study used a generic qualitative research design to explore the role of information sharing and information quality in HSC disaster response. A generic qualitative research design was deemed appropriate for this exploratory study as it is interested in understanding people’s reports of their beliefs, attitudes, reflections or opinions on their experiences (Percy, Kostere & Kostere 2015:78).

The unit of analysis for this study was HOs operating within the Southern African humanitarian space. Ten middle- and senior-level employees working for these HOs formed the unit of observation for this study. Purposeful sampling was used to select organisations and potential participants (Doyle et al. 2020:446). Homogenous sampling was used to purposefully select participants and organisations. Homogenous sampling comprises inclusion and exclusion criteria used to identify suitable participants as the criteria are detailed (Robinson 2014:26). Subsequently, homogenous sampling allows for information-rich data to be collected.

For an organisation to be eligible to participate in this study, it had to comply with certain inclusion criteria. The organisation should provide disaster relief in the humanitarian space in Southern Africa and should have responded to a man-made and/or natural disaster within the last 2 years to ensure that the organisation could supply the researchers with valuable and relevant information. The organisation’s size differed from small to large because different HOs responded to different disasters. Individual participants also had to comply with certain inclusion criteria to participate in this study. Firstly, the participants should work for an HO operating in Southern Africa. Secondly, this participant had to be a middle to senior manager with at least 2 years’ experience in the humanitarian sector. Thirdly, the participant needed to be actively involved in the decision-making process for disaster response in Southern Africa to ensure the collection of relevant and applicable data.

After seven interviews, all themes, sub-themes and codes were determined. Three additional interviews were conducted to ensure that no new substantial information was obtained and that data saturation was achieved (Francis et al. 2010:1239). Data saturation is an indicator that adequate information has been collected and that additional interviews will provide little or no new information (Stephen et al. 2015:1781). Table 1 outlines the demographics of this study’s participants.

This study employed semi-structured interviews to collect data. These interviews were directed by a discussion guide after thoroughly reviewing the current literature. A pre-test was conducted with a participant who met the inclusion criteria. This pre-test formed part of the data set used in this study as only minor changes were made. Once these interviews were conducted, it was immediately transcribed using transcription software, after which the recordings were re-played to ensured that the transcriptions were verbatim.

Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Thematic analysis entails ‘identifying, analysing, organising, describing, and reporting themes found in a data set’ (Nowell et al. 2017:2). A preliminary inductive analysis was conducted after the researchers became familiar with the data (Creswell 2012:243). Literature was then analysed to identify a priori codes combined with the inductive codes to create a master code list. ATLAS.ti 22 software was used to label relevant data. After the data were analysed, redundant codes were eliminated, and interchangeable codes were combined to form part of the refinement process (Braun & Clarke 2012:61). The remaining codes were integrated into appropriate themes and sub-themes; codes were used to formulate the study’s findings.

Trustworthiness is the degree to which the recipient has confidence that the information provided is without bias and is valid (Mumuni et al. 2020:161). The criteria used to ensure the trustworthiness of this study is credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability (Shenton 2004:64). The credibility of this study was ensured by continuously providing a summary of understanding during the interviews, asking iterative questions to clarify subjects and reiterate the study’s voluntariness (Polit & Beck 2012:591; Shenton 2004:66–68). Dependability was achieved by ensuring clear inclusion criteria and by keeping a record of all research procedures (Elo et al. 2014:4). For this study, transferability was achieved by providing sufficient information regarding the context of the study and an in-depth explanation of the phenomenon this study aims to investigate (Shenton 2004:73). The context of this study described the methods in which data are collected, the location and number of organisations interviewed, and the length and date that the semi-structured interviews were conducted. To help achieve confirmability, the researchers made detailed notes regarding the development of themes (Nowell et al. 2017:8).

Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences Research Ethics Committee (No. u18032975/2022). Before each interview, all participants were provided with a consent form. This form emphasised that the interview was voluntary and confidential. The researchers ensured that each participant understood and signed the consent form before the interviews commenced. Moreover, each participant’s anonymity was ensured through using pseudonyms.

This theme explores the various roles that information sharing plays during HSC disaster response.

Eight participants confirmed that sharing information during HSC disaster response results in more efficient disaster response. Efficient disaster response refers to responding to the disaster in the least costly and timeous manner without compromising the quality of the response efforts and the optimisation of resources. Participants confirmed that when they share information among each other during HSC disaster response, the response to disasters is more efficient. Humanitarian organisations also avoid neglecting certain territories, as confirmed in the following quotation:

The findings from this study are consistent with the literature regarding information sharing promoting coordination and collaboration among humanitarian actors, improving transparency and preparing contingency plans for future disasters (Dubey et al. 2019a:163, 2020:14; Khan et al. 2019:2081; Negi & Negi 2021:45; Van Wassenhove 2006:481).

This theme explores the various roles that information quality plays during HSC disaster response.

This theme explores the information sharing approaches during HSC disaster response. Humanitarian organisations and other humanitarian actors use different methods and tools to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of information sharing during HSC disaster response.

Theme 4 explores the information quality assurance methods and tools used by HOs during disaster response. These methods and tools aim to ensure accurate and reliable information to assist HO in making more informed decisions and responding to disasters successfully.

The last theme examines the challenges that HOs face when responding to a disaster. These challenges hinder HOs from responding to disasters optimally.

This generic qualitative study explored the role of information sharing and information quality in Southern African HSCs during disaster relief. This study investigated how information is shared in Southern African HSCs during disaster relief. Furthermore, this study examined how the quality of information is ensured during Southern African HSC disaster relief. The first research question addressed the role that information sharing plays in HSC disaster response. Four roles of information sharing during HSC disaster response were discovered, namely: coordination and collaboration, transparency, preparedness and contingency plans and efficient disaster response. This study is coherent with current literature in finding that coordination, collaboration, transparency and preparing contingency plans for future disasters are enhanced through sharing information during HSC disaster response (Dubey et al. 2019a:163, 2020:14; Khan et al. 2019:2081; Negi & Negi 2021:45; Van Wassenhove 2006:481).

The second research question explored the role of information quality in HSC disaster response. The study identified three roles of information quality in HSC disaster response: information accuracy, information clarity and trustworthiness. This study is aligned with current literature regarding information accuracy, information clarity and trustworthiness of information and confirms that the quality of information promotes these information quality roles (Dubey et al. 2019a:163; Khan et al. 2019:4; Shayganmehr et al. 2021:2).

The third research question investigated how information is shared during HSC disaster response. Three information sharing methods, namely meetings, cluster-based approaches and humanitarian actors’ relationship management, were discovered, and two information sharing tools, namely virtual communications and data and web-based platforms. This study confirms the findings of current literature by validating that humanitarian actors can use cluster-based approaches to share information efficiently and effectively during HSC disaster response (Altay & Pal 2014:1015; Damoah 2022:134). In addition, this study is aligned with current literature as it confirms that virtual communications, such as Google Drive, WhatsApp, phone calls, emails, newspapers, radio stations and social media and databases and web-based platforms are used as information sharing tools during HSC disaster response (Dubey et al. 2019a:162; Kabra & Ramesh 2016:83; Murayama et al. 2021:1078). Furthermore, this study expanded on current literature by discovering that humanitarian actors’ relationship management promote sharing of information during HSC disaster response.

The fourth research question addresses how information quality was ensured during HSC disaster management. Four information quality processes and methods, namely information quality teams, manually vetting beneficiaries, cross-checking data and using historical data, were identified and three information quality tools, namely spreadsheets, paper-based documents and databases. This study corroborates with current literature by validating that historical data are used in HSC disaster response as an information quality method (Jeble et al. 2019:615). In addition, this study aligns with current literature by identifying that HOs use databases as an information quality tool during HSC disaster response (Kirac & Milburn 2018:486). Furthermore, this study augments the current literature by discovering that HOs manually vet beneficiaries and cross-check data as information quality methods to ensure the accuracy and trustworthiness of the information.

The fifth and last research question explores the information sharing and information quality challenges that HOs face during HSC disaster response. Four information sharing challenges, namely duplication of information, a lack of information sharing between humanitarian actors, a lack of information sharing tools and misinterpretation of the information. There are also four information quality challenges, namely information ethics, data collection challenges, a lack of information quality processes and methods and a lack of information quality tools. This study confirms current literature by identifying the duplication of information and the lack of information sharing between humanitarian actors poses a challenge for HOs during disaster response. Moreover, this study aligns with current literature by validating that a lack of information quality processes and methods, and a lack of information quality tools are challenges that HOs face when responding to an HSC disaster (Altay & Labonte 2014:60; John et al. 2019:1228; Kirac & Milburn 2018:486). Furthermore, this study contributes to the current literature by discovering that a lack of information sharing tools and the misinterpretation of information creates information sharing and information quality challenges that ultimately lead to an unsuccessful HSC disaster response.

Therefore, five main theoretical implications were discovered in this study. Firstly, this study expanded on current literature by identifying that information sharing can assist HOs in proactively preparing for future disasters by creating disaster preparedness and contingency plans. Secondly, this study confirmed current literature by finding that information accuracy, information clarity and trustworthiness of information promote information quality in HSC disaster response. Thirdly, this study augments current literature by establishing that the relationship between humanitarian actors promotes optimal information sharing among them. Fourthly, this study contributed to the current literature by discovering additional information quality methods that assist HOs in ensuring information accuracy and trustworthiness of the information. Fifthly, this study expanded on current literature by identifying additional information sharing and information quality challenges HOs face during HSC disaster response.

Firstly, this study creates awareness of the importance of information sharing and information quality in HSC disaster response. Practitioners should prioritise and invest in sharing quality information between humanitarian actors. As a result, practitioners will achieve a more efficient and effective HSC disaster response, which will result in a successful disaster relief effort and ultimately alleviate the suffering of vulnerable people. This study also provides practitioners with various information sharing and information quality methods and tools to increase the level of information shared between humanitarian actors during disaster response. Methods and tools, such as managing relationships with humanitarian actors can increase efficiency in sharing quality information. Secondly, the challenges outlined in this study enable practitioners to understand the challenges that Southern African HOs face during HSC disaster management. Practitioners should be proactive and create strategies to mitigate these identified challenges when a disaster occurs.

This study identified four main limitations and directions for future research. Firstly, this study explored the role of information sharing and information quality in Southern Africa, limiting this study’s findings to only the perspectives of developing country HO participants. Therefore, future studies can expand on this study by investigating the role of information sharing and information quality during disaster response in other African countries or in developed countries. Secondly, this study only focussed on the perspectives of individual HO participants. Future studies can use a case-study approach or data triangulation between different humanitarian actors to explore more thoroughly how the relationship between humanitarian actors influences the quality of the information shared and how different information systems are integrated to respond effectively to disasters. Thirdly, this study focussed on the disaster response phase, which is only one phase of the disaster relief cycle. Future studies can investigate the nature of information sharing and information quality in other phases of the disaster relief cycle. Fourthly, this study followed a generic qualitative approach; future studies can test and determine the nature of information sharing and information quality with a quantitative study.