The project management field of study is investigated in the context of the current debate on decolonisation of the university curriculum.
Current project management theories and curriculum are based on Western management philosophy (WMP). This creates tension on the African continent where the debate is currently about the revival of African management philosophy (AMP) and how it should form part of management theories and the discourse in general.
The problem currently is that AMP is not incorporated or even discussed within project management literature. The aim of this article is to create discussion around AMP and how it can be infused into project management theories and ultimately the curriculum. The AMP and WMP are discussed through the lens of project management, specifically the Project Management Body of Knowledge.
Philosophical discussion was employed to facilitate the discussion of infusing AMP into project management. Various historical concepts and practices were explored to provide perspective concerning management philosophies and theories.
Infusing AMP into the curriculum must be a conscientious effort from the academic staff who teach project management. Moreover, true infusion of AMP is best facilitated through the interaction between academics, students and stakeholders. There are, however, certain processes that are principle agnostic and are independent of either AMP or WMP.
We should philosophise more on infusing AMP into project management, creating new theories, and that the curriculum should be adjusted to incorporate AMP.
This paper stimulates discussion around AMP and project management.
The social media movement in South Africa called #FeesMustFall reintroduced the concept of decolonisation to all universities’ agenda (Hamilton
Decolonisation is a concept that academics have been struggling with since the concept was introduced (Heleta
The lack of research on the role that African management philosophy (AMP) can play within the project management discipline creates an opportunity for scholars. At present, project management and the philosophies around it are informed by Western management philosophy (WMP). Western management philosophy in project management is evident in formal standards and practices such as Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge (APMBOK) and PRojects IN Controlled Environments 2 (PRINCE2) (Association for Project Management
Before attempting to answer the question of what decolonisation constitutes, it may be worthwhile to first consider what colonisation entails. To colonise, by definition, means to take control of an area and send people to live in that area (Webster
The standard definition of colonisation refers to political and geographical colonisation. Many territories have been colonised over the last seven centuries by the so-called stronger nations. The first Western powers to do so in the modern age were Portugal and Spain (Lilly
When these supply points became too costly to protect against other nations, the Dutch and the British took control of many of these proto-colonies, often by force (Da Silva
The British Empire expanded towards the Americas during the early 1600s and established the original 13 colonies of the region on the east coast (Middleton & Lombard
Japan also colonised surrounding regions during the 1800s and 1900s (Myers et al.
Russian expansionism during the mid-20th century created various multi-ethnic societies when Soviet citizens relocated to new territories after the Second World War (Huntington
Colonisation has also occurred in the Middle Eastern and Balkan regions by way of various empires that conquered neighbouring states. Most notable of these was the Ottoman Empire, which was established in 1452 based on an expansionist policy fuelled by national pride. This empire was dissolved in 1922 after its defeat in the First World War.
It seems that during the vast history of colonisation, the main motivations for taking political control of other territories were (1) seeking more resources, (2) expanding territory, (3) national pride and (4) creating buffer regions between competing nations.
The penetration of foreign settlers in new territories had a profound effect on the indigenous population of those regions. Many of these effects negatively affected the indigenous populations (Bernhard, Reenock & Nordstrom
One of the greatest negative impacts of colonisation on indigenous populations was the establishment of slave trading from these new territories. Most, if not all, of the colonising nations engaged in slave trading during their stay in Africa as well as in the Americas (Conniff & Davis
Another impact of colonisation is the assimilation of culture. Indigenous populations came into contact with colonising foreigners. Where such contact occurs, different groups start trading and communicating. The dominant or stronger group may force the weaker culture to adapt to their ways of living (Ting-Toomey et al.
An instrument many colonial nations used to force indigenous cultures to become more accepting of the foreign power was religion (Chidester
Prior to colonising, there were different or ill-defined borders and territorial boundaries (Mignolo
With the arrival of foreign colonisers to a region, new knowledge and technology were imported as well. This knowledge was used by settlers primarily to develop their new surroundings to achieve the level of civilisation that they were accustomed to in their home countries. As a consequence, indigenous populations did not immediately benefit from new innovations. However, trade was an activity that was almost immediately practised between settlers and indigenous populations (Smith
Increased levels of trade provided indigenous populations with access to new technologies and products. One significant example of this is the introduction of maize and the cultivation technology to the African continent by Portuguese settlers and explorers during the 1500s (Jeffreys
Codified legal systems were often introduced by settlers in their new territories where some form of legal system already existed (Joireman
In summary, it can be said that populations in colonised regions lost their independence and in many cases were exploited for economic reasons. This took place through the export of resources that included people as chattels and slaves. The act of colonisation also increased opportunities for indigenous populations to become involved in economic trade and gain access to new technologies, infrastructure and ideas that undoubtedly also had some sort of positive effect. These aspects disproportionately benefitted the settlers rather than the indigenous populations.
It is, however, after the decolonisation of territories that the economic and developmental benefits became more tangible and accessible to indigenous populations as they ‘inherited’ them. The original inhabitants gained their independence again when colonial powers returned political control. The established and developed infrastructure and economy then came under the direct control of the indigenous populations for their direct benefit after they were often excluded from participating in economic and political activities.
In 1960, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly adopted Resolution 1514 (XV) as the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (United Nations General Assembly & United Nations Office of Public Information
As a result, 80 former colonies or such territories gained their independence from countries such as France, Britain, USA, Japan and South Africa. Seventeen non-self-governing territories remained as of 2016. These are mostly smaller islands in the Atlantic, Pacific and Caribbean regions held predominantly by the United Kingdom and less so by the USA, France and New Zealand. The inhabitants of some of these regions have openly declared their support for the colonial powers of their territory and have rejected independence (Dunleavy
Various economies thrived after independence was gained, most notably India and the USA (Malhotra
After the independence of a region, the people that came into power, most often the original inhabitants or colonialised populations, had to decide what was to be done with their ‘inheritance’. Administrative and legal systems that were set up under colonial rule had become the norm (Wolfe & Mikdashi
The historic term for colonisation related exclusively to increasing geographical areas for political and economic gain. Other reasons for colonisation also included creating buffer zones between competing nations. Decolonisation occurred as a result of the recognition of the individual human right to self-determination as well as the movement for decolonialism prior to this recognition by the UN. The impact of colonisation was varied and mostly resulted in the disenfranchisement of indigenous populations at the cost of their way of life. It is undisputable that colonisation had a detrimental effect on indigenous populations during the process of colonisation and after independence.
The cultural impact of colonisation was not as quick to dissipate; the culture of previously colonised populations and settlers mingled as they had to coexist. The so-called colonisation of the mind is a subject for robust debate, but what can be said is that perhaps the following principles may apply:
All humans have a right to self-determination and independence.
There is an acknowledgment of cultural diversity and a willingness to coexist with it.
Intellectual diversity may exist because of how the world is perceived by diverse people.
Transferral of ideas, as in education, should be available in a manner to those who seek it.
Knowledge may be more relevant and valuable to the context in which it was created.
Established knowledge can and should be supplanted by knowledge that is proven to fit reality better.
A more serious type of colonisation is considered in the next section, that is, the colonisation of one’s mind and thoughts.
The
Pillay (
Some have argued that even the very action of thinking has been colonised and needs to be decolonised for the benefit of indigenous people (Kaunda
This then is linked to education. Academics in the educational sciences believe that education, at least primary education, yields the best results if students receive it in their home language (Heugh
While many indigenous groups are admirably making strides to reclaim and protect their culture, it would again be obtuse to ignore the fact that not all people are always proficient in each other’s language. Therefore, falling back on the language most often spoken in a particular region or a language that allows communication on the global stage is preferable as it accommodates the greatest number of individuals. It therefore becomes clear that education needs to be of benefit to all those who wish to become educated. Higgs (
Respects diversity: diversity in many cases serves as an opportunity to learn from others and be exposed to new ideas (Flood & Romm
Acknowledges individual lived experiences: acknowledging another’s lived experiences requires us to be open to questioning our own interpretation of the outside world (Merryfield
Challenges the dominance of established knowledge: no article of knowledge or results thereof should be considered unassailable (McComas
The problem with the current curriculum at universities is that the focus is still on Western philosophies. This is irrespective of the discipline. Hunter (
Eastern and African philosophies such as Confucianism and ubuntu (Broodryk
South African universities should not reinvent the wheel in their pursuit of intellectual decolonisation. These institutions can learn from the struggles of indigenous scholars from former colonies (McLaughlin & Whatman
Management philosophies, and especially research within the management discipline, have made significant strides in globalising their reach and being more inclusive of organisations in non-Western developing economies in the last two decades (Zoogah, Peng & Woldu
In the next section, the roots of project management are investigated and some of the greatest projects since the dawn of humankind are highlighted. The rationale is to determine which nations have applied the principles of project management and where these projects were implemented.
Project management has a long history prior to being formally standardised over the past 30 years. This history cannot be ignored as it provides an excellent learning opportunity for understanding how projects were constructed centuries ago. Furthermore, history can illuminate how colonisation has played a role in the development of project management. The following sections provide insights into renowned buildings from as far back as before the Common Era (BCE) and how project management was applied to realise goals.
The Egyptians established themselves as the first and greatest nation in 3200 BCE. They believed death was the beginning of a journey to the next life and embarked on a project to build the Great Pyramid of Giza to entomb Pharaoh Khufu (Edwards
Initiating: Architect Hemienu was tasked with designing the pyramid to entomb Pharaoh Khufu (Kozak-Holland
Planning: Pharaoh Khufu was 40 years old when the project was initiated, which did not leave much time for construction. Hemienu and the overseers of quarries and transport assisted with the selection of the construction site as the site had to accommodate the specifications of the pyramid. The Giza plateau was selected as the construction site because it was a quarry itself and there was a nearby harbour to manage large volumes of resources. The work breakdown structure of the project included site preparation, construction, removal and ramp demolition. The workforce comprised 20 000 workers. They were split into many groups to enable efficiency and easy monitoring.
Executing: Three key challenges influenced the scope and schedule. Firstly, a perfectly level base had to be created. A thin perimeter trench was dug and filled with water. Workers cut out 2-ton blocks and used these to create a level plane. Secondly, 43 large granite blocks were required for the burial chamber. These were delivered from the southern region of Aswan after 10 years. The roof required 9 blocks to be moved with precision to a height of 42 m. Thirdly, ramps were required to move the blocks. A multitude of internal ramps of 4.6 m were snaked within the inner structure. These were used in conjunction with an external ramp of 61 m to move the blocks inside.
Monitoring and controlling: Hemienu was concerned about the burial chamber as limestone blocks were stacked above it. Stonemasons were tasked to chisel a tunnel through the limestone so that Hemienu could assess the chamber. Small cracks were noticed and were subsequently plastered and monitored for further changes.
Closing: The project was completed within the allocated schedule of 20 years, which was a major feat given the time period. Furthermore, resources were used efficiently within the project’s budget. Extensive planning ensured that the limited workforce was organised effectively to construct the project within time, cost and scope. The pyramid is the last surviving of the seven wonders of the world. It remained the tallest building until the construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1870.
Emperor Flavian Vespasian had to restore confidence within the Roman Empire and purge the memory of tyrannical Nero. Gladiator events were previously held in temporary structures and the Colosseum Project aimed to create a permanent structure for gladiator events for the Roman people (Matthew
Initiating: The project was pursued primarily as a political endeavour. The purpose was to show governmental generosity and give back to the people (Kozak-Holland
Planning: Four contractors were used to deliver the project. Architectural principles developed during the construction of amphitheatres were used and applied when designing the Colosseum. Extensive equipment was required for construction such as capstans, windlasses, grins, cranes, sleds and wagons. Certain equipment had to be fabricated onsite as this would be more effective than shipping equipment to site. The workforce consisted of trade unions (guilds), soldiers and slaves. The guilds included highly skilled individuals. The workforce was approximately 20 000–30 000 men. The project required 778 325 labour days. The Colosseum was built on three levels and incorporated 240 arches.
Executing: A drainage system was initially constructed prior to building a 14 m foundation. Excavation was performed using ox and cart, which could each handle half a ton. The site was divided into four areas as it was not large enough for the entire workforce. Independent teams worked concurrently to promote efficient productivity. External walls used travertine, which was easily mined and hardened when exposed to air. Travertine was bonded using 300 tons of iron clamps, and not mortar like previous projects. Vaulted arches were used because they are stronger than flat ceilings. Stairs and seats were standardised and interchangeable and were installed two levels at a time to promote efficiency. A retractable roof covered the stadium and was built using the principles of mast and sails.
Monitoring and controlling: Throughout the project, various modifications and improvements were made to the original plan and design. The top of the building went through many iterations, hence the different styling in the interior. The styling evolved over time and through the reign of three emperors.
Closing: The project took 10 years to complete and was overall a success for the empire and the people. The flooring was strong enough for lifts to bring animals up from the dens for more intense gladiator fights. Aqueducts provided water for naval flights. Spectators were covered by the retractable roof. Drinking fountains and toilets were installed around the stadium and integrated into the water and drainage system.
In 532 significant civil unrest and riots took place in Constantinople. The riots were extremely violent and many fires destroyed sections of the city. One casualty of the fires was the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). This afforded the opportunity to construct a new extravagant church for the people (Charles
Initiating: Emperor Justinian mandated the construction of the Cathedral at Hagia Sophia and served as the main stakeholder. The goal was to have a showpiece within the city that would outshine previous cathedrals (Kozak-Holland
Planning: The emperor took full control of project funding and construction supervision. The project was to be completed in 5 years and within the reign of Justinian. Experienced architects were required and two famous individuals were selected: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. Both architects were the equivalent of modern-day academic professors. The cathedral was to be built on a hilltop so that it would act as a watchtower for Constantinople. The area of the building would be 5250 m2 and 55 m high. Justinian wanted the architects to design a dome which had never been seen before. This subsequently required the architects to apply highly sophisticated geometry to engineer the dome.
Executing: The entire interior was built using bricks and marble. The intention was to allow extensive light into the building which could reflect off the marble and thoroughly illuminate the interior. Justinian ordered the plundering of ancient temples for their extravagant columns as this would add to the cathedral and his legacy. Pumice stone and Rhodian bricks were used during the construction because they were lightweight. This, however, increased the cost as these bricks had to be shipped rather than manufactured near the site. Earthquake-resistant cement was invented and used during the project as it could handle earthquakes of 7.5 on the Richter scale. A 31 m diameter dome was created to cover and cap the cathedral. The dome was supported by four marble columns and a new, innovative design was applied to withstand horizontal forces.
Monitoring and controlling: The two architects were given authority to direct the project at any given time. They both supervised master builders to ensure that the work was executed correctly. Adjustments had to be made to the original plans as the weight of the dome was too much for the square base. A rectangular base was subsequently used and the circular dome was changed to an elliptical dome.
Closing: The project was completed in 5 years, from February 532 AD to December 537 AD. The overall cost was 2000 pounds of gold, which equates to approximately US$3 billion today. The fast pace of the project is visible today as there are many marble pieces that overlap and do not fit correctly. A key design feature of the cathedral is that the dome has a floating effect above the plethora of windows. The ambitious goal of Emperor Justinian was realised as the cathedral stood as the tallest in the world until 1920 AD. Many churches after Hagia Sophia applied the same dome architecture and the cathedral is considered a prototype for dome design.
A crown palace for the fifth great Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan was to be built as a tomb upon his death (Ahuja & Rajani
Initiating: The purpose was to build a mausoleum for Shah Jahan when he died (Kozak-Holland
Planning: The mausoleum required very experienced and skilled individuals. This culminated in a team of 37 designers and architects. The emperor was actively involved in selecting the architectural design as he wanted the mausoleum to be truly unique. The principal architect was Ismail Khan who worked for the Turkish Ottomans. Finances and administration of daily duties were handled by reputable Persians: Mukrimat Khan and Mir Abdul Karim. Master masons supervised masonry and a goldsmith was tasked to cast the gold which caps the dome. The workforce required 20 000 men from Persia, France, Iran, Italy and Turkey. The project made use of three stone types: common stones, semi-precious and rare, scarce stones. The mausoleum faced similar challenges to the Great Pyramid of Giza: site preparation, brick production, quarry operations, logistics, workforce accommodation and ramp construction and removal.
Executing: Construction of the mausoleum began in 1631AD. The construction took the following sequence: The plinth and tomb construction, the Taj Gateway and garden construction, and the outstanding sections were built in phases. The foundation was built by resting each supporting beam on deep rubble and concrete holes which were connected by arches. The building has not shifted in over 385 years, which is testament to this technique. Concentric circles were applied to the double dome and were 2 m thick. Moreover, no pillars were used to support the double dome structure of 50 m high and 13 000 tons. The outer Minarets were tiled outwards so that they fell away from the main building in the event of an earthquake. An animal-powered water system was developed to deliver water to the main building.
Monitoring and controlling: Flooding from the nearby river was a concern during construction. Wells were subsequently dug so that any excess water would be absorbed before affecting the foundation. Large marble blocks and materials required precise placement in the structure. This was achieved and managed via the construction of a 15 km tamped-earth ramp from Agra to the site.
Closing: Construction of the plinth and tomb took 12 years to complete. The Taj Gateway took another 10 years to complete. The Gateway signifies the divide between the material and spiritual worlds. The Taj garden (Charbagh), which is known for its beauty, spans 90 000 m2 and exemplifies the overall mausoleum. The project took 17 years overall and was completed within the lifetime of Emperor Shah Jahan. The approximate cost is equivalent to 32 million rupees today.
The 1920s saw a race for the tallest building in New York, as many buildings aimed to achieve the world record for the tallest building in the world (Wigoder
Initiating: A tender was put out for construction companies to compete. Two companies responded. Initially, Eken, the leading skyscraper constructors, proposed that they would use existing equipment and rent anything else which was required. Alternatively, the Starrett Brothers proposed that this project was unique and required the design and purchase of new, custom equipment. They noted that the equipment could be resold upon completion and would cost less than renting.
Planning: The initial schedule was for the project to be completed in 18 months. There were many risks with building in the heart of Manhattan. Firstly, there was a possibility of serious accidents with the use and movement of heavy equipment. Secondly, 12-h traffic would make it difficult to transport equipment and supplies to the project site. The contractors determined that about 60 different skill trades were required for the project and that certain supplies would be manufactured within close proximity of the site. This project was one of the first to use Gantt charts for activities and resource allocation. The project also was the first to start construction prior to the final designs being completed. This was known as ‘fast-track’ construction. The aim was to reduce delays and moderate costs.
Executing: Excavation took place before the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, the building which was occupying the site, was completely demolished. This was part of the ‘fast-track’ approach. The foundation was laid by 600 workers running in two 12-h shifts. The building applied a modular construction approach for the steel frame skeleton. The frame construction began in March 1930. The required materials were prefabricated offsite but nearby as initially planned. A key challenge was that steel beams could only be lifted 30 storeys at a time. This required the use of several hoists to get the beams to higher levels. The project workforce amounted to 3500 men who were required to work Sundays and holidays to meet the ambitious schedule.
Monitoring and controlling: Moving bricks around using wheelbarrows was found to be inefficient and physically demanding. This was addressed by designing a chute where bricks were dumped into carts which were then lifted to the required floor. Daily work was monitored using just-in-time. This allowed the contractor to determine if the day’s production was aligned with the project plans. The workforce required sustenance to maintain the intense level of work expected. Lunch counters were established on various floors to reduce travelling time for the men. This also enabled the project to run more efficiently as more time was available for lunch and production. The build rate was more than a floor a day and within 6 months, the steel frame extended 86 floors.
Closing: The project was completed ahead of schedule and within 11 months. The project was also within budget as the total cost was approximately US$25 million of the estimated budget of US$50 million. The Empire State Building is still renowned as a key New York landmark and was classified as the eighth wonder of the world. The building was also the tallest building in the world until the construction of the World Trade Towers in 1972.
A multitude of projects have been embarked on over the centuries, as discussed above.
Historical map of projects.
The concept of project management consists of two individual concepts: project and management. The project part focuses on the technical aspects of project management. Technical aspects include scheduling and requirement elicitation. The second part focuses on the management of a project. This implies that the technical aspects need to be managed in some way but most importantly that management philosophies are used to manage projects. This leads us to the question of where project management emanates from.
On the other side of the globe, Project to maturity (P2M) (Ohara
to serve as a guide to assist in enterprise growth and survival in the globally competitive business and public services environment, complementing other international project management bodies of knowledge and project management competency standards. (Ohara
The authors of the P2M standard perceive the Western project management standards to be superior as the purpose is to complement these standards. Project to maturity is not perceived as an alternative or Eastern way of doing project management, but rather as an extension of the Western standards.
Philosophising project management is important. According to Konstantinou and Müller (
Various authors highlight the difference between WMP and AMP (Hunter
Western management thought advocates Eurocentricism, individualism, and modernity, [
Western management philosophy is based on the concept of capitalism, which consists of seven basic principles, which are briefly as follows:
Competitive markets: Within a competitive market, there are a large number of producers competing against each other to satisfy the needs of various customers. The main driving force of a competitive market is profit. It must be noted that this market is all about the winner takes all (Dew, Goldfarb & Sarasvathy
Price system: This system is a sub-component of any economic system where the valuation and distribution of goods and services are expressed as a price. Prices can be fixed or free based on the markets. The concern is that there is growing evidence that businesses are exploiting the price system for the sake of profit. South African businesses have colluded in price fixing in various sectors, for example construction, consumer goods and financial institutions.
Voluntary exchange: This occurs when both buyers and sellers voluntarily exchange in market transactions (Adler
Wage labour: This is a socio-economic relationship between a worker and an employer where the worker is paid by the employer for the work or effort being done. This relationship is also open to abuse where the worker can be exploited by the employer. This is especially the case in countries where job opportunities are scarce. The ideal situation would be where wage labour is substituted for the opportunity of self-employment (Rahman
Capital accumulation: The capital base of a business is increased using the profits. It involves the acquisition of more assets that are used again to create more wealth. There are various examples in Africa where capital accumulation is promoted (Alon et al.
Private property: This principle focuses on tangibles and intangibles owned either by individuals or by businesses over which their owners have exclusive and absolute legal rights. Private property can be transferred only with its owner’s consent, and by due process such as sale or gift.
Owner-value maximisation: This principle arises from agent theory and the thinking is that the agent should maximise the value of an owner’s goods. These goods can include private property or wage labour.
These principles by themselves are fair and just. The problem is not necessarily with WMP, but there is a possibility that they promote unethical behaviour. This unethical behaviour is promoted by a person’s greed and inherent tendency to exploit others.
On the other side of the scale, we find AMP, which is founded in ubuntu (Goldman
Solidarity: This is an agreement that exists amongst individuals. These individuals will have a common interest and will feel the same about certain aspects or topics.
Compassion: This derives from the Latin
Respect: It originates from the way that a person considers the rights of others. This implies that the rights of the colonised are just as important as those of the colonisers.
Dignity: This principle states that there is ‘value intrinsic to something about human nature that demands honouring’ (Metz
Humanness: Within the context of ubuntu, this implies that an individual’s personality is dependent on his or her relationship with the community at large.
Caring: Metz (
Sharing: This is summarised by McFarlin, Coster and Mogale-Pretorius (
Infusing African management philosophy into project management.
The difference between AMP and WMP is that WMP can lead to unethical behaviour. Western management philosophy, as is, cannot be faulted; however, it creates the opportunity for exploitation of the workforce as well as the introduction of uncompetitive behaviour.
A project is defined as a temporary undertaking that creates a unique product or service (Project Management Institute
The most popular project management standard in Africa is the PMBOK® Guide. This standard consists of 10 knowledge areas comprising 47 processes. The processes that can be infused with AMP need to be identified and analysed to determine how this infusion can be done.
Mapping of African management philosophy to Project Management Body of Knowledge Guide processes.
Knowledge area | Processes | Infuse African management philosophy |
---|---|---|
Integration management | 1. Develop project charter | - |
2. Develop project management plan | - | |
3. Direct and manage project work | √ | |
4. Monitor and control project work | √ | |
5. Perform integrated change control | - | |
6. Close project or phase | - | |
Scope management | 1. Plan scope management | - |
2. Collect requirements | √ | |
3. Define scope | √ | |
4. Create work breakdown structure | - | |
5. Validate scope | √ | |
6. Control scope | √ | |
Time management | 1. Plan schedule management | - |
2. Define activities | - | |
3. Sequence activities | - | |
4. Estimate activity resources | - | |
5. Estimate activity duration | - | |
6. Develop schedule | - | |
7. Control schedule | - | |
Cost management | 1. Plan cost management | - |
2. Estimate costs | - | |
3. Determine budget | - | |
4. Control costs | - | |
Quality management | 1. Plan quality management | - |
2. Perform quality assurance | - | |
3. Control quality | - | |
Resource management | 1. Plan human resource management | √ |
2. Acquire project team | √ | |
3. Develop project team | √ | |
4. Manage project team | √ | |
Communication management | 1. Plan communication management | √ |
2. Manage communications | √ | |
3. Control communications | √ | |
Risk management | 1. Plan risk management | - |
2. Identify risks | - | |
3. Perform qualitative risk analysis | - | |
4. Perform quantitative risk analysis | - | |
5. Plan risk responses | - | |
6. Control risks | - | |
Procurement management | 1. Plan procurement management | √ |
2. Conduct procurements | √ | |
3. Control procurements | √ | |
4. Close procurements | √ | |
Stakeholder management | 1. Identify stakeholders | √ |
2. Plan stakeholder management | √ | |
3. Manage stakeholder engagement | √ | |
4. Control stakeholder engagement | √ |
Project managers should be mindful about the processes where AMP can be infused. The infusion of AMP will contribute to a more humane way of working with people where the ultimate goal is not just profits, but where the focus is commerce with morality and social well-being.
Infusing AMP as a management concept will not replace the transfer of knowledge from the Western world but ‘can support the development of a hybrid management system operating in Africa within which these Western concepts can find their proper African translation’ (Karsten & Illa
Guruba (
This implies that the curriculum can only adopt AMP and infuse its principles into the current curriculum. How can this be done? Infusing AMP into the curriculum must be a conscientious effort from the academic staff who teach project management. This is not something that will come naturally and effort must be made to make academics aware of these principles and how they can be incorporated into project management. Firstly, academic staff must receive training on AMP and how it can be applied to the teaching of project management. Secondly, the content of prescribed textbooks must be adapted to cover aspects of AMP. This in itself creates new challenges as most project management textbooks are written by Western authors. This means that academic staff must either write textbooks with AMP as the focus or current textbooks need to be supplemented with notes on how AMP can be infused into project management. Finally, true infusion of AMP is best facilitated through the interaction between academics, students and stakeholders as each entity can provide critical input regarding decolonised curriculum development.
Relating the debate back to the three points raised by Konstantinou and Müller (
Creating awareness of AMP and infusing it into the project management curriculum is a journey and quick results should not be expected. Academic staff will determine whether we practise lip service to AMP or whether we really want to infuse AMP into the academic curriculum. The ultimate test would be when current students become practitioners and display the values of AMP during project implementation.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
C.M. was responsible for the conceptualisation, literature review and drafting of the article. W.E. was responsible for literature review on the history of colonisation. N.J. was responsible for literature review on the history of project management.